Journalists are often caught in the middle of meaning construction. As stated by Van Gorp, “They not only present a forum where the symbolic contests take place, but also add layers of interpretation of events.” These symbolic contests take place during visible demonstrations related to a social movement, such as protests. The forum is used to describe the media landscape that activists seek to gain legitimacy within by controlling their narrative. Layers of interpretation are the frames applied by journalists as their voice colors how information is presented (Culver and McLeod 2023; Masullo et al. 2024; Van Gorp 2014).
No individual is without bias, and journalists are no exception to this rule. Bias can be inherent in journalists’ attitudes toward an issue (O’Boyle and Li 2019). Journalists are not always aware of this bias or how they relate to each other. They often borrow frames from each other, using and reusing the same formula when drafting their articles– making this form of bias self-reinforcing and systemic (Van Gorp 2014).
Commonly Used Frames
Van Gorp suggests that the conflict frame and social responsibility frame dominate news coverage. The first emphasizes who is competing against whom and what the stakes of this clash are. The latter frame instead draws attention to where an issue originated and who should be responsible for finding a solution (Allern 2014; Van Gorp 2014). Four key roles of reporters were discussed within this frame.
The adversarial role: Maintains skepticism of public officials and business leaders, representing an alternative approach to top-down reporting
The interpretive role: Investigates claims made by the government and seeks to explain complicated social problems as they affect the population
The disseminator role: Focuses primarily on spreading information as quickly and as broadly as possible
The populist mobilizer: Emphasizes activist narratives and seeks to return journalistic voice to relevant communities
Role conceptions are important to understand when analyzing framing through the news, as they provide critical insights into how journalists interact with their audiences. Different writers and organizations may view their role differently and thus approach their work with varying mindsets (Heath and Lowrey 2021).
Framing and Legitimacy
The effects of framing might impact attitudes toward the protest itself, involved protestors, and the trigger for the protests. Protest stories that used a legitimizing and humanizing frame, rather than criminalizing, successfully shifted the protest paradigm in certain cases. Credibility did not appear to be impacted by these frames but was instead moderated by political beliefs. Conservatives were more likely to discredit coverage with a humanizing frame, while liberals reported the opposite. This study poses political association as a notable factor to consider when analyzing the effects of framing social movements (Masullo et al. 2024).
The concept of legitimacy is also examined in studies on framing. This label is dynamic as perceptions are subject to change based on a range of external or individualized factors. Legitimacy frames foster the incorporation of social justice into a functioning democracy, rather than positioning protests as adversarial to community interests. Taking care to incorporate legitimation frames into reporting empowers activist voices and fosters a durable frame of reference for a specific social movement. This should be done through source selection, contextualizing protests, and being wary of marginalization cues (Masullo et al., 2024).
Recommendations for Reporting
Following research on the protest paradigm, McLeod identifies five pitfalls to avoid when covering social movements (“Students Push Back on Protest Coverage; Share Media Concerns” 2024; McLeod 2020).
Elite framing: Relies on hegemonic power structures when gathering information, stems from a top-down approach to protest coverage that privileges authority figures over protest participants.
“According to Chief Smith, the protestors are upset about the criminal being put on death row.”
Episodic framing: Refers to the tendency of the media to categorize a protest as a standalone event rather than one part of a larger social movement, flattening the history of an issue and shifting the perception of protests to be “overly dramatic” or demanding.
“A student at Columbia has decided to share her story by carrying a mattress around campus as she seeks justice for her assault.”
Us v.s. Them: Positions two groups/viewpoints in opposition to one another, oftentimes working with the conflict frame by pitting activists against police/authority; May have the unintended effect of alienating their message from the general public, who cannot identify with the protest.
“The only people protesting against police brutality are criminals and anarchists.”
Overgeneralizing actions: Classifying a large movement based on the actions of a small subset of individuals
“All BLM protestors are looters.”
Lack of empathy: Address how social movements are often led by individuals who are disenfranchised and marginalized by society. By further taking away narrative control, whether intentionally or not, a journalist can further silence these voices.
“My parents came to this country the right way and every one should be able to do the same, I know what the immigration process is like and people should just figure it out.”