Category: 1 – definitions of Europe (Page 2 of 2)

The Many Conceptions of Europe

September 14, 2018 / Alex Doe / 0 Comments

Defining Europe:

The concept of Europe exists as a hybrid of multiple geographic, cultural, political, and economic definitions. These definitions vary with time and have alternatively included or excluded a range of countries in accordance with the prevailing definition of the time period. Europe’s putative geographic boundaries leave a great deal of uncertainty, particularly with regards to Russia and Turkey, as to who can join the European Union (EU). The EU presents Europe’s collective ideals in the most cohesive and easily observable manner; it is, therefore, worthy of heightened consideration in the pursuit of a definition of Europe.

The proponents of the EEC selected Christian-Enlightenment and liberal capitalism as the two pillars of a common European identity (Hudson, 2000). In the aftermath of World War II, the founding fathers of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and later the European Economic Community (EEC) sought to establish economic prosperity and peace. Their determination to avoid future interstate warfare, particularly between France and Germany, motivated the creation of supranational institutions to “ground European unity in Christianity and Enlightenment ideals” (Heffernan, 1998). Christianity once served to differentiate Europe from the East, defining Christendom in opposition to Muslim invaders. In terms of liberal capitalism, Cedric Durand pointed out the importance of undistorted market competition in the Treaty of Rome (Durand, 2014). The EEC’s elimination of “quantitative restrictions on the movement of goods… the flow of payments and eventually, all tariffs,” in the words of Economic Cooperation Administration administrator Paul Hoffman, undergirded the newly constructed European free market identity (Durand, 2014). Early thinkers, such as William Penn, hoped that economic interdependence based on the elimination of barriers to trade and travel would deter aggression between states. Assimilation to Europe’s economic identity, however, constitutes a lesser problem for many EU hopefuls than assimilating to the cultural and political norms.

The standards for entry into the EU have long included market capitalism and parliamentary democracy, while Christianity’s influence has diminished. Greece, Portugal, and Spain entered the EU in the 1980s in large part to secure their fledgling democracies. Recently, the criteria for entry has become more rigorous (Smith, 1996). Close economic ties to the EU occasionally stop short of membership due to cultural differences, as in the case of Turkey. The heightened standards of liberal social policies and strong democratic institutions have defined Europe’s identity to outsiders, although the institutions of some insider countries have weakened in recent years. Geographically, the prospect of an expanding EU is also the prospect of an expanding Europe. Once a country enters the European Union, it has assimilated into the political, social, and cultural standards of the EU.

Turkey as a Case Study:

In 2000, Ray Hudson published a paper claiming that Turkey’s violations of human rights disqualify it from immediate consideration for EU membership. The trend away from liberalism accelerated 2017 after an arguably corrupted referendum resulted in more concentrated power for President Recep Erdogan.

The ideals of Europe and the European Union, as noted above, have long included democracy, and a specific form of institutional liberal democracy. Since a coup attempt in 2016, Turkey has undermined freedom of the press, placing hundreds of journalists in prison and shutting down media outlets in mass. President Erdogan has thrown Turkish oppositional members of parliament in prison, along with over one hundred thousand civil servants, none of whom received proper judicial procedures. These affronts to liberal democratic ideals led Manfred Weber to write that, “Turkey is very far away from fulfilling the currently applied conditions for EU membership.” The European Parliament, in keeping with Weber’s observations, has formally frozen Turkey’s accession process.

In addition to the democratic barriers facing Turkey, a number of European countries refuse to recognize them as European in a cultural sense. France and Austria overwhelmingly opposed Turkey’s membership prior to the referendum. They saw Turkey as belonging outside of the European family due to the lack of a “Christian past, Greco-Roman tradition, and Enlightenment process” (Oguzlu, 2012). Europe has long struggled to integrate distinct cultures into its identity. While the Syrian Refugee Crisis in 2011 best exemplifies the right-wing populist backlash to cultural outsiders, even the most liberal members of the European Union view cultural disjuncture with cynicism. Chancellor Angela Merkel disappointed many Turks in Germany when she declared multiculturalism had “failed, and failed utterly” in 2010 (Oguzlu, 2012). In 2015, she would echo similar sentiments in the wake of the challenges to her open-borders policy towards Syrian refugees.

The economic and security benefits of Turkish EU membership would allow Europe to better control its border with Syria, pursue further economic integration, and more easily access the wars in the Middle East where Turkey has a geographic proximity advantage (Weber, 2018). Until Turkey addresses its democratic and cultural disconnects with Europe, such benefits seem unlikely to occur.

Sources:

Durand, Cédric. “What is Europe?.” The Cyprus Review 26, no. 1 (2014): 37-62.

Glencross, Andrew. Politics of European Integration: Political Union or a House Divided?. John Wiley & Sons, 2014

Heffernan, Michael. The meaning of Europe: Geography and geopolitics. Arnold, 1998.

Hudson, Ray. “One Europe or many? Reflections on becoming European.” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 25, no. 4 (2000): 409-426.

Oğuzlu, H. Tarik. “Turkey and the European Union: Europeanization without membership.” Turkish Studies 13, no. 2 (2012): 229-243.

Smith, Michael. “The European Union and a changing Europe: establishing the boundaries of order.” JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies 34, no. 1 (1996): 5-28.

Weber, Manfred. “EU–Turkey relations need an honest new start.” European View 17, no. 1 (2018): 52-57.

Definitions of Europe

September 14, 2018 / Connor Jones / 1 Comment

The question “what is Europe ?” is very complex and has had many answers over time, as well as still being debated today. There are many different types of definitions that one can formulate when thinking about the definition of Europe. One of the most common is geographic. Europe is the western part of the Eurasian landmass that starts at the Atlantic and ends at the Caucasus and Ural Mountains. This definition could be problematic, however, because these geographical boarders are not clear enough and would cut Russia in two and excludes Turkey. Another common historical definition would be based off of religion or culture, specifically dividing Europe using the criteria of Christian vs. Muslim. This view has obviously not been held widely today. The last historical definition was the political definition, specifically looking at the divisions of democracy vs communism. Europe was the capitalistic west, while the eastern part of the landmass was under the influence of communism. The definition that many use today is based on the member countries within the EU. With currently 28-member states, it doesn’t encompass all of Europe, but the collective group certainty holds the most political and economic power in the region. Countries that are not part of the EU realize this and have been fighting to be added for long periods of time. Turkey, for example, has been negotiating since 1987 to join and has been unsuccessful. With a significant number of conditions and approval needed from all 28 countries, it is not easy to gain access into this group. However, the fact of the matter, is that in contemporary Europe, the EU countries are thought of as the “European continent”. The people that are citizens of an EU country can consider themselves “European”. As the geographical, cultural and political definitions have become outdated over the years, the creation of the EU has taken over as the true definition of Europe.

The Czech Republic has been a member of the EU since 2004, after about 4 years of communist rule. Since 2004, this country have been the beneficiary of billions of dollars in development funds from the EU and about 84 percent of the Czech’s exports are to intra-European countries. In more recent news, they are currently trying to adopt the euro. From the evidence presented, it is clear that the Czech Republic’s idea of Europe is probably greatly influenced by being part of the EU. Since most of their political and economic institutions are influenced by the EU, their view of Europe is likely just a view of the EU. Czech Republic has also taken a very hard stance on the migration crisis. This has been such a pressing issue that the Czech Republic is thinking about following Britain and starting “Czexit”, a nod to Brexit. In a study conducted by the STEM agency, about 60 percent of Czechs said they were unhappy with EU membership and 62 percent said they would vote against it in a referendum. This reinforces that the cultural and geographic definitions of Europe still might be considered by some within the Czech population. If they don’t want to have a quota of migrants and want to keep their European identity, their definition might be more restricted. It is no surprise that the Czech Republic would have such a restricted view on Europe. The EU has played such a vital role economically and politically that they want to keep it that way and keep benefiting from free trade and interconnectedness of the union, and would prefer not to have to share it with new members or people. Even though some Czech leaders have been called euro skeptics, they still have taken on the European identity after all these years of influence, and it shows when they want to close their boarders.

Anonymous. “Czech Republic – European Union – European Commission.” European Union. September 05, 2018. Accessed September 12, 2018.

Glencross, Andrew. The Politics of European Integration. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell, 2014.

Holehouse, Matthew. “Czech Republic ‘will Follow Britain out of EU’.” The Telegraph. February 23, 2016. Accessed September 11, 2018.

The Definitions of Europe

September 14, 2018 / Gabriella Juliana / 1 Comment

What is Europe?

Europe is a transcontinental community that is united by its shared ancestry and frequent cultural contact as a result of historical trade, which has created a set of common ideals across the various nations that make up the continent today. Historically, the biggest unifier of these various ethnicities and cultures was the rise of Christianity and the long-lasting power and influence of the church. This institution and its expansive power helped set a standard of common values and ideas and facilitated a common identity. Today its main unifier is financial, and its cooperation is maintained as result of the integration of various economies. There are many other qualities that Europe would prefer to define itself by such as its champion of liberal democracies, regard for human rights, or its role in peacekeeping but it is first and foremost held together by the interconnectedness of its economics. Another important definition of Europe is based on geography. Glencross points out that while the EU generally defines the borders of Europe by its 28 members, other organizations such as the Council of Europe define it differently and include nations which are not necessarily within the traditional border (2014). The traditional European identity is therefore based on the characteristics of EU member nations despite the fact that many countries who are within the continent’s borders are not members. Seemingly, using borders and geography to describe Europe is not the most effective definition. The political definition of Europe is based on the fact that all EU members are liberal democracies who balance each other out to make sure that no member nation is ever more powerful than another (Glencross, 2014). This political definition is supported by the strength both economically and militarily that comes with the integration of these member nations. For many decades’, nations were against the idea of forming a union and the first six were only truly convinced of the benefits after the conclusion of World War I. The integration of these six nations and the later integration of 22 more is thus defined by the shared value that there should never be atrocities inflicted like those in the Great War. Today, even those not in the EU share this same value and show it by entering other alliance treaties such as NATO and the Untied Nations. Therefore, the best definition of Europe is based on the set of shared values used as the standard for maintaining peace.

Albania and the Idea of Europe

To many, European identity is synonymous with that of the European Union. But this is not the case for Albania. Albania is a country that has long sought to become a part of the EU. Many would not consider the identity of Albania to be aligned with that of “traditional Europe” but I think that the country is simply just misunderstood. Despite not being in the EU, Albania proudly showcases its spot in Europe’s shared history and ancestry and highlights the small role it played in the Greek and Roman empires. The territory of Albania also fell under Byzantine rule, which was when it was introduced to Christianity. Albania is very much a product of its history and there are two main reasons why Albania doesn’t seem to fit the bill for the traditional European identity: religion and politics. As a result of its conquering by the Ottoman Empire, many people in Albania converted to Islam. Albania has since been dubbed a Muslim country and although 59% of the population identify as such, there is no official state religion (The World Factbook, 2018). Christianity is the second most practiced religion in the country and Mother Teresa is ethnically Albanian. Despite this, the country continues to promote its secular views as a result of its 50-year dalliance with communism in which its anti-religion campaign suppressed all forms of worship and repurposed most religious institutions into cultural centers. A 2010 Gallup poll reported that religion plays a role in the lives of only 39% of Albanians and ranks Albania the thirteenth least religious country in the world (Wikipedia). As previously mentioned, Albania fell prey to communism after the end of World War II, but before then had attempted to form a democratic government in the late 20’s. The collapse of communism revamped the democratization of the country in 1992. Because of its political structure for the better part of the 20^th century and its location to former Yugoslavia, Albania is seen as just another poor, southeastern European nation. And while Albania has a long way to go in terms of economic growth, their misunderstood identity should not be a restriction to their entry.

Glencross, Andrew. The Politics of European Integration, 22-29. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, 2014.

“Religion in Albania,” Wikipedia, last modified September 9, 2018, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_Albania.

“Europe: Albania,” CIA World Factbook, last modified August 16, 2018, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/al.html.

Definitions of Europe

September 13, 2018 / Jack Prill / 1 Comment

What are Europe’s Boundaries?
The inherent characteristics of Europe’s geography define its regional boundaries. Whether that is the region of the Atlantic Ocean stretching to the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, or Ireland to Istanbul, Europe’s geographic definition is more concrete than true European membership and identity. While “Europe’s” 28 members (soon to be 27, while looking simultaneously looking to jump to 33 in the near future) define membership economically and socially, there are many countries that have been left out due to political, religious, or economic reasons.
According to Glencross, Morocco previously attempted to join the EEC in 1987, to no avail. This suggests that Europe does not wish to expand its exclusive club to the south. While geography can be pointed to as the cause of this denial, another mostly Islamic country, Turkey, does technically fall within the geographic boundaries. Yet, Turkey’s standing as a semi-authoritarian state weakens their case for admission. When we consider social barriers such as religion, the mounting differences and hindrances in the eyes of Brussels and long lasting European citizens suppress the chances of a country like Turkey receiving membership. In the eyes of my case study country of Montenegro, previous war and macroeconomic instability are the root for their exclusion so far, despite lying within the geographic boundaries. While the West Balkans seem to be a target for inclusion in the near future as long as their economic standing becomes more stable, countries on the other side of the Black Sea seem to be more of a longshot. Countries such as Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan are members of the human rights group the Council of Europe which overall includes 47 countries. Yet, overall institutional weakness and drastic cultural differences allow geographic reasoning to be used as a facade.
While EU membership is a clear indicator of European Identity, it is important to consider that Norway (for reasons surrounding their fishing), Switzerland (fiscal reasons), and in a few months the United Kingdom are all on the outside of the supposedly essential club that aims to put forth a common European identity. The question that should be posed is this: what does being within the boundaries of Europe provide unless a country benefits economically through EU inclusion? In short, EU membership defines a soft European border that could artificially bring together these Eastern European countries with western ones, but is that the best option for all parties involved?

The Idea of Europe
When considering the Idea of Europe, it must be acknowledged that many different actors will have different viewpoints and opinions. Additionally, they will use different criteria when drawing those hypothetical boundaries. Criteria such as physical geography, religion, economic status, or European Union membership all stand in the way of a united definition.
My case study country of Montenegro is not an EU member, yet appears on track to be one by the year 2025. While Montenegro and Serbia are the only two countries that have started membership talks, others such as Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, and Macedonia seem to follow their West Balkan neighbors in such talks soon, according to the European Commission. The important takeaway geographically from these EU enlargement aspirations is the fact that Greece is an EU member while being further away from continental Europe compared to these aspiring members. Obviously, geography is not the reason that these West Balkan nations have been withheld from the EU as they clearly fall within the regional definition of Europe. Additionally, religion does seem to be the driving issue behind their exclusion from the EU. Around 75 percent of the country is Christian, mostly of the Serbian Orthodox branch. While nearly 20 percent of the population practices Islam, this minority is not a significant enough number to deter membership, as is the case with Turkey whose Islam population is 82 percent of the total population.
As a result of the decline of the Eastern Bloc and the Yugoslav split, many different actors were left with the task of rebuilding their respective countries. After years of war on the peninsula as well as closed market economic policies, West Balkan nations were left underdeveloped and poorer than other western European nations. According to the World Bank, economic growth sits at a projected 2.5 percent in 2019, nearly a full percent lower than the other five non EU West Balkan nations. Additionally, the World Bank views Montenegro as a country that is susceptible to external shocks, as it relies on capital inflows from abroad. If Montenegro wants to advance forward as a potential EU addition, macroeconomic stability must be improved along with achieving the difficult task of lowering the debt level.
All facts considered, Montenegro’s standing as a geographically appropriate, predominantly Christian, economically developing country fits the profile for the Idea of Europe.

Glencross, Andrew. The Politics of European Integration: Political Union or a House Divided? Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell, 2014.

Rankin, Jennifer. “Serbia and Montenegro Could Join EU in 2025, Says Brussels.” The Guardian. February 06, 2018. Accessed September 12, 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/feb/06/serbia-and-montenegro-could-join-eu-in-2025-says-brussels.

“Montenegro.” World Bank. Accessed September 12, 2018. http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/montenegro.

Welcome, Students of European Integration!

August 7, 2018 / Katalin Fabian

Please respond succinctly and with evidence that is supported by relevant and reliable sources. The references (in Chicago author-date style) are not part of the max. 400 words limit.

Prompt 1) The definitions of Europe
Due: noon, Sept. 14, peer review: noon Sept. 16, final: 7pm Sept. 18 max. 400 words each
A) What is “Europe”? Where are its boundaries?
B) How does your case study relate to “the idea of Europe”?

Prompt 2) Institutions