Category: 1 – definitions of Europe (Page 1 of 2)

What is Europe? Where are its Boundaries?

The question of ‘What is Europe’ can have multiple interpretations. The physical limits of Europe’s size are not usually heavily disputed. The term Eurasia is sometimes used to describe the continent of Europe and many large Asian nations combined. However, Europe is usually described as extending from the U.K. (and Iceland) to the west all the way to Russia in the East. Scandinavian countries make up northern Europe and Mediterranean nations to the south (Albania, Turkey, Cyprus). This makes Europe a very large place, with huge cultural differences between Eastern and Western Europe. To answer the question bluntly, Europe is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere (and almost all in the Eastern Hemisphere) bordered mainly by water as well as Asia to the East. Europe is significant because it was the birthplace of Western Civilization over 2000 years ago. The legacy of the Roman Empire and Ancient Greece can still be easily felt today in the western world. While all European countries are different, they were traditionally similar in some aspects. Royal monarchies, Christian faith, and fair skinned people have dominated most of Europe in past centuries. Boundaries of Europe are seen as soon as Turkey ends and the Middle East begins (Syria), where the religious and political culture changes completely. Europe is also not defined as just the EU countries. The Soviet Union once ruled over almost half of Europe, and it’s largest remnants (Russia, Ukraine) are not apart of the EU. Geographic Europe absolutely stretches through Russia and to the most southeastern parts of the continent.

The Idea of Europe (Romania)

When thinking about Europe, Romania is probably one of the last countries to come to mind. Romania has a troubled past, but was originally part of the Ottoman Empire that occupied the entire Balkan Peninsula. Historically, Romania does fit in to the ‘idea’ of Europe. It was occupied by a monarchy as the Kingdom of Romania, run by Prince Carol I in the 19th century. Romania then stayed neutral during World War I, and attempted to do the same in World War II before a Soviet Ultimatum resulted in a military invasion of Romania. The King was replaced with General Ion Antonescu, who contributed to the killing of hundreds of thousands of Jews in the Holocaust and presided over two successful wartime dictatorships. He was tried and executed in 1946, and afterwards the Soviets installed a communist regime in Romania until 1989. While most of the revolutions of 1989 and the years onward were bloodless in Eastern Europe, Romania’s was one of the few that transitioned violently. In the contemporary period, Romania has shown growth and steps toward European integration. It joined NATO in 2004 and the EU in 2007. Culturally, Romania does fit into the idea of Europe. An overwhelming majority of the population describes themselves as Christians, although there is no official state religion. The Romanian language also shares many features with western Romance languages such as French, Spanish, and Italian. Despite these similarities, Romania is still a developing country. It faces problems with governmental corruption and infrastructure. Bucharest is Romania’s capital and largest city, also serving as its cultural and financial center, similar to the rest of Europe. The city also hosted the 2008 NATO summit. Overall, Romania fits into the idea of Europe, and has integrated into Europe, but still has development needed to be done in order to fully be part of what ‘Europe’ truly is.  

What is Europe? Where are its Boundaries?

The Question of “What is Europe is a multi-faceted question, as there are many different avenues that one can take to investigate the question.  Different lenses must be used to dissect the continent that can range from economic clout to cultural boundaries.  While there are many different regions of the continent that vary in economy, culture and geography, there are some more holistic and concrete definitions of what is Europe.  To begin, Europe’s boarders are definite, even though certain countries leaders may disagree, are definite.  The continent extends from Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea south down to the north coast of the Mediterranean Sea, East of the Atlantic Ocean and on the western boarder lies Russia, with the dividing line in the western section of the country.  These boarders have been disputed for many years, and are changing constantly.  Recently in 2008, Russia invaded and annexed a section of Georgia in an act of aggression, thus shifting the European Boarder farther south into Asia.  European boundaries can also be described using a different context than geographical.  Cultural norms that are the status quo in Europe can draw boundaries between certain countries.  Europe can be clearly divided in to a Eastern and Western section based on cultural standards.  Eastern refers to the more traditional and conservative outlooks, often associated with authoritarianism and Islamic-centric states.  These states differ from the Western European outlook which strongly encourages democracy and natural autonomy for their citizens.  These countries that adopt these ideals, The UK, France, Germany, Belgium among others, have committed themselves to the EU after witnessing the atrocities of WWII, pledging themselves to prevent such an event to ever happen again.  Glencross states that the sentiment of “never again” (Glencross 23) was a gluing force between nations post WWII. Through this international agreement, Europe changes to a divided continent with singular states watching out for their sole interest, it is a unified group that works cooperatively together to forward movements to prevent an outbreak of another war.  They do this by monitoring human rights violations among other things.  The EU effectively watches and checks its members to prevent the outbreak of another armed conflict.

Because of this singular union among 28 European states, this affects the identity of the citizens of the member states.  This identity can be put in a context of a boundary within Europe.  Throughout the 28 countries, people still identify with their respective country but also with the European identity.  Banded together, these unified states under the EU promote a international nationalism for lack of a better term for their home continent of Europe.  But what about the countries surrounding the EU?  Many of these countries are within a close proximity to Russia, with whom the EU often monitors and checks.  Through Russian influence from the Cold War, many of these countries retain pro-Russian sentiments.  This eastern block mentality provides not necessarily anti-EU sentiment, but certainly not pro.

The Idea of Europe

In the greater scheme of Europe as a whole, The Netherlands may seem somewhat insignificant.  It occupies a relatively small plot of land with large shipping hubs along its Atlantic coast; just another small European country.  However, when you look at the internal dynamics of the country it is clear that it is not so insignificant, and how what happens internally affects the surrounding countries and Europe as a whole.   The Netherlands has been a shipping country due to their geographic location, with major ports like Rotterdam and Amsterdam, and is one of the largest exporters in the world.  Additionally the countries unique liberal stance on many social movements such as soft drugs and sex workers provide a unique and different perspective when talking at the European table.

The Netherlands economic capabilities stem from the nature of the countries geography.  Being on the Atlantic, the country has always been a major port, exporting goods like fish and agriculture.  The country also became very heavily involved with banking, which it amassed a large economy.   The Netherlands was ranked 2nd in 2016 by the Global Enabling Trade Forum by the World Economic Forum (World Economic Forum 2) and was ranked the 5th most competitive economy by the Swiss International Institution for Management Development in 2017 (IIMD 3).  With these numbers, The Netherlands’s economy is very strong, and it plays a large role in the greater context of Europe.  However, since the country is very committed to their neighbors about economic support, and through that liberal connection in foreign relations, the country is somewhat reliant on them as trade partners.  If they suddenly stopped trade with other countries, the economy would be in shambles.

Another unique staple in the European context is that of the socially progressive and accepting policy that the country adopts.  The Netherlands has a longstanding tradition of Dutch social tolerance dating back to the 19th century.  This social acceptance started with religion, but today has moved to much more political issues elsewhere such as cannabis laws, prostitution and the sex business.  While they hold these beliefs to be important and vital to who they are as a people, they also bring a unique perspective to the table when thinking in a broader European context.  The Netherlands almost always supports liberal trade agreements and social policy when talking in the grand scheme, with their membership in NATO, the EU and the UK.

Works Cited:

International Institute for Management Development. “T h e 2 01 7 I M D Wo r l d Competitiveness Ranking.” The Wayback Machine, Aug. 2016.

“The Global Enabling Trade Report 2016.” Global Competitiveness Index 2017-2018,

Glencross, Andrew. 2013. Politics of European Integration : Political Union or a House Divided. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.

What is “Europe”? Where are its boundaries?

The question of “What is Europe” is not as simple as it might seem. Defining “Europe” is actually quite intricate and there are a lot of caveats to what the answer might be. However, the answer to this perplexing question is purely dependent on the perspective one decides to look at it with. The most basic way to answer the question of “What is Europe” would be to answer it through a geographic lens. When looking at Europe through a geographical standpoint, the boundary to the west would be the Atlantic Ocean, the boundary to the south would be the Mediterranean Sea, the boundary to the north would be the Arctic Ocean, and the boundary to the East would be the Ural Mountains of Russia. In terms of definition, looking at this question through a geographic lense would most likely give you the most objective answer to “What is Europe” and what are its boundaries. However, in delving deeper into the question and changing the lens to more of “European identity”, the definition gets a bit more muddled and confusing. According to Glencross, in European history, even though all the countries spoke different languages, there was a huge commonality that bonded most people of Europe. That commonality was through religion in which almost everyone in Europe was a Christian. Religion made Europeans differ with the people from Asia and Africa, so to be European meant you had to be Christian. However, with the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire, who were Muslims, meant that there were non-Christians in Europe. According to Glencross, the Pope wanted to defend Christian Europe and that these Muslim invaders were not deemed to be European. Essentially, in this historical case, the barometer of what made someone European was if they were Christian or not.

Today, the viewpoint people often most look through is not a historical viewpoint or a religious viewpoint, rather the viewpoint people look through is a viewpoint of whether or not a country that is within the geographic confines of Europe is in the European Union. The European Union is a union that is both economic and political and has 28 members currently. However, within that definition of the European Union, there are many caveats. While there are 28 countries in the European Union, only 19 of those countries are a part of the Eurozone, which is the monetary union of Europe. All in all, while it may be hard to define Europe, what is important to notice is that it is a definition that changes over time, so right now it could mean EU membership is the indicator of what Europe, but in 20 years that may not be the case.

The Idea of Europe (Portugal)

The idea of Europe, much like the question “what is Europe”, is very nuanced. The reason for this is that the idea of Europe is extremely subjective. Depending on what country or person is talking, their idea of what Europe is could be astronomically different. There are many different factors into what they might think is European so depending on how they define Europe, their idea of what Europe is might be different.

My case study country is Portugal which is a member of the European Union. Portugal is located west of Spain and is nestled in the southwest corner of Europe. Portugal has been part of the EU since 1986 and is involved in many of the EU’s functions. For example, Portugal is a member of the Eurozone and is a member of the Schengen area. The Schengen Area is free movement of people through European countries and allows anyone in the EU to work in any country that is apart of the Schengen Area. Being apart of the Schengen Area makes Portugal extremely integrated to the rest of Europe and more specifically the EU. From a historical viewpoint, Portugal has been one of the most established countries. During 15th and 16th century Portugal built a power navy and built a vast global empire throughout the New World during that time period. At this time period, a majority of the established European countries were colonizing the rest of the world, so within a historical framework Portugal very much fits in with this idea of Europe. From a religious perspective, Portugal has always extremely Christians and have staunchly followed the pope. Because of the country’s closeness to Christianity, one could easily say Portugal fits in under this idea of Europe. In modern day Europe, Portugal is extremely involved in the European Union, having 21 members in the EU parliament. Additionally, Portugal is a consistent figure in the EU council. By a modern day idea of Europe, Portugal completely submits to this ideal. Furthermore, because of its history and religious affiliations make it all the more encompassing of submitting to the idea of Europe.   

Works Cited

Anonymous. “Portugal – European Union – European Commission.” European Union. September 04, 2018. Accessed September 14, 2018. https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/countries/member-countries/portugal_en.

Anonymous. “Schengen Area – Migration and Home Affairs – European Commission.” Together Against Trafficking in Human Beings. December 06, 2016. Accessed September 14, 2018. https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/schengen_en.

Glencross, Andrew. The Politics of European Integration: Political Union or a House Divided? Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell, 2014.

What is Europe? Where are its boundaries?

Defining “Europe” is a more complicated process than how it may at first seem. From a geographic lens, it could be defined west to east as the landmass from the Atlantic Ocean to the Ural Mountains of Russia and from north to south as the Arctic Ocean to the Mediterranean. However, the parameters of what constitutes Europe go beyond mere geography. It has an intrinsic political, historical, cultural, and even religious component. Despite its now diverse population, Europe has been built from Christian ideals. In fact, Glencross attributes this Christian identity as a major factor in differentiating Europe from outsiders. However, as Christianity became divided by the Reformation of the seventeenth and eighteenth century, the sovereign state came into play and, with it, the idea of a republican order. Diplomatic peace projects such as William Penn’s international congress and Abbot Saint Pierre’s Project for Perpetual Peace in Europe brought forward the idea of collective security, but did not come into effect. Immanuel Kant’s Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Essay brought in a new definition of Europe, one which rests on the principle of popular sovereignty. Today, a liberal democratic system is a core requirement of becoming a member of the European Union.

The idea of Europe:

Plovdiv, Bulgaria is considered by some to be the oldest city in Europe. Despite its strong historical roots to Europe, Bulgaria did not become a European Union member state until January 2007. Due to its close proximity to the Soviet Union, the country fell into communist control post-World War II which the EU united partially to defend against. However, after implementing reforms, the augmentation of its market economy, and the acknowledging its commitment to human rights Bulgaria signed the Treaty of Ascension in 2005 after becoming a member of NATO in 2004. Its involvement in NATO demonstrates the county’s commitment to collective security. Furthermore, Bulgaria is a parliamentary republic in which the head of the executive has limited powers. Thus, Bulgaria fulfills the “European” mold, and EU requirement, of having a liberal democratic government.

Bulgaria also is a predominantly Christian nation, with the majority of believers being Bulgarian Orthodox. The nation has been dominated by Christianity since it became the state religion in 865. This ties Bulgaria to the idea of a united, Christian Europe.

One seemingly small, but hugely important way in which Bulgaria is a part of Europe is its desire to be. The European Union is an institution which countries join voluntarily. Bulgaria has proven its dedication to be a part of this united Europe in two main ways. Firstly, the country is currently in the process of joining the Schengen zone, demonstrating a desire to be further incorporated into Europe. Secondly, through its push to join the Eurozone. Currently, Bulgaria uses the lev as currency, but hopes to change this by the end of the year. This demonstrates an economic and political move to integrate more fully into European identity.

Bibliography:

Andrew Glencross. 2014. Politics of European Integration: Political Union or a House Divided?

Wiley-Blackwell.

Silvio Amaro. “Amid Brexit and Rising Populism—there’s still a country that’s desperate to join

the euro,” CNBC, 23 April 2018. https://www.cnbc.com/2018/04/23/bulgaria-the-european-country-still-hoping-to-join-the-euro.html

What is Europe?

Europe is often used as a geographical term that can be defined as a continent of the northern hemisphere that contains 20 percent of the world’s population. In addition to this, Europe can also be defined as a political and cultural entity that separates itself from Asia. Europe previously defined its separateness through a common religious identity: Christianity. However, in the seventeenth century, and with the establishment of sovereign nation states, did a secular Europe begin. Europe is a political system with unique characteristics focused on European unity and peace, which is driven by the mechanism for enhancing prosperity across Europe and a way to civilize Europe’s nation and citizens (Glencross 2014, 22-24). Europe is now closely associated and defined through the European Union,  established in 193, which is driven by European unity. It is a unified trade and monetary body of 28 countries and is meant to allow countries to become more tolerant and respectful of their neighbors (Glencross 2014, 23). These 28 countries together work towards European values such as eliminating border controls of members, the free flow of goods and people, create a competitive global market, and also strives towards promoting peace among the countries, foster diversity, and offer freedom and security within its borders.

Where are Europe’s Borders?

Europe’s borders remains a key debate of Europe. The geographic boundaries of Europe and Asia remains in question, especially in consideration to Turkey and Russia, countries with territory in both Europe and Asia. The European Union currently only consists of 28 countries, which does not include all of the countries that comprise modern Europe. However, the Council of Europe consists of 47 countries, 28 which are in the EU and includes Russia, with the aim to uphold democracy, human rights, and the rule of law in Europe. These 47 states should be considered in the borders of Europe as they are driven by European values. In addition, Turkey is not a member of the EU or Council of Europe, but its population consist of ethnic Turks, Armenians, Greeks, Albanians, Bosnians, and Georgians, and it state follows western civilization, culture, and systems. Turkey is apart of NATO and has expressed interest in joining the European Union, but has not been granted membership. The boundaries of Europe should be defined by political and cultural characteristics of the country. Therefore, Turkey resembles the cultural and political dimensions of Europe and “europeans” and should also be included in the boundaries of Europe along with the 47 other states.

The “Idea of Europe” to Croatia

Croatia is located in the Balkans and currently gained membership of the European Union in 2013. Croatia joining the European Union was confirmation that it is dedicated to the democratic and cultural set of values of the EU. Europe is focused on European integration, and Croatia, with its membership, now strives for political stability, economic development and long-term peace. By joining the EU, Croatia has opened up to the opportunity to participate and engage in EU policies and processes that will allow Croatia to flourish with European values. About five years into the EU, Croatia has already seen economic growth and now has the opportunity to be equal with other European states and citizens and be acknowledged as a global player. It has been stated that, Croatia’s EU membership is a new stage “towards a totally unified and democratic Europe” (“Croatia’s accession to the European Union” 2013).  

With Croatia’s membership as an EU member, it has gained and carried an important role in defending EU’s longest external border and preventing a new migration crisis such as an uncontrolled migration to reoccur or irregular migration along a new route. With its strong security forces, it is also moving towards joining the Schengen entry. The European Commissioner Dimitris Avramopoulos referred to Schengen at a civil liberties committee hearing as “the core symbol of our unity” and called on “the Council to finally decide for Croatia (entry), as soon as it is technically ready” (Schengen 2018). This validates Croatia’s changing roles in Europe and its adoption of the EU values of peace and prosperity within its country. Croatia has also gained interest to strengthen its political and economic relations with other countries, such as Germany. Croatia and Germany have worked well together on migration-related issues, which is the goals and hopes of the European Union: to unite countries to integrate and cooperate civilly with one another on current issues. Croatia’s “idea of Europe” has gradually been evolving to resemble the “idea of Europe” of the EU. Although still facing struggles as a country, it is moving in a positive direction of acting as an integrated member of the EU and Europe with the growing establishment of European values.

Works Cited

“European Issues and Interviews.” Transatlantic Relations after Brexit. June 23, 2013. Accessed September 16, 2018. https://www.robert-schuman.eu/en/european-issues/0283-croatia-s-accession-to-the-european-union-thoughts-for-europe-at-a-crossroads.  

Glencross, Andrew. The Politics of European Integration: Political Union or a House Divided? Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell, 2014.

HINA. “Croatia Has Important Role In Defending EU Border.” Total Croatia News. September 1, 2018. Accessed September 16, 2018. https://www.total-croatia-news.com/politics/30764-crotia-has-important-role-in-defending-eu-borders.

Kiprop, Joseph. “Is Turkey in Europe or Asia?” World Atlas – Maps, Geography, Travel. April 20, 2017. Accessed September 16, 2018. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/is-turkey-in-europe-or-asia.html.

“Schengen: Enlargement of Europes Border-free Area | News | European Parliament.” Chernobyl 30 Years On: Environmental and Health Effects – Think Tank. February 23, 2018. Accessed September 16, 2018. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/security/20180216S\TO98008/schengen-enlargement-of-europe-s-border-free-area.

“The EU in Brief – European Union – European Commission.” European Union. July 04, 2018. Accessed September 16, 2018. https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/eu-in-brief_en.

1. What is “Europe”? Where are its boundaries?

Europe is an inherently geographical term to define the separation of the western part of the Eurasian landmass but there are many ways to define what Europe is and where its boundaries are. The definition of Europe has changed over the centuries and continues to do so based on political, cultural, and geographic definitions. The geographic definition of Europe is based on the mountain ranges of the Urals and the Caucasus. These mountain ranges have defined what Europe geographically looks like because they are geographical borders that separate the landmass of Eurasia. Europe is also culturally defined by mass Christianity. Before Christianity spread to the European region, the area was populated by a multitude of different ethnic groups all with varying beliefs and cultural practices. Glencross attributes the beginning of Christianity as the basis for a European identity when the Germanic and other tribes overran the Roman Empire and converted to Christianity. Europe became united as a Christian republic. The definition of Europe is popularly viewed as political due to the fact that unification of the landmass has been an important element in defining Europe. Ideals of unity have defined the European region and in more recent times, Europe has become synonymous with the European Union even though the landmass of Europe contains more countries than the 28, soon to be 27, countries in the European Union. Europe is viewed by outsiders as a democratic continent that values human rights when this is more on par with the European Union than Europe as a whole. The European Union does not encompass all of Europe but allows any “European” country to join, among other criteria, so there is still a glimmer of hope for any European countries not in the European Union. This sliver of promise will probably never occur due to the fact that other countries would need to comply with the Copenhagen Criteria and conform to European Union ideals in order to unify as a landmass.
My case study of Italy is a part of the European Union and one of its founding members. Italy would have a positive view of Europe because it is a part of the exclusive European Union and believes in those ideals that define the European Union. Italy is also a Catholic country so it is also a part of cultural Europe. Italy is already on the inside of the European Union and even though it was only unified in the 19th century, it has always been seen as a part of Europe from its time as the Roman Empire, to its place in the Byzantine Empire, and as the seat of the Pope and the conglomerate Papal States. A state that is a part of Europe culturally and geographically but not a part of the EU, such as Serbia or Albania may not have the same view of what Europe is because they are not involved in the EU (yet). These outside states that are still technically within continental Europe that might be vying for EU membership might want to classify themselves as European to get into the EU. On the other hand, the country of Russia does not want to be in the EU so they might have a more negative perception of the European identity and being a part of Europe.

2. How does your case study relate to “the idea of Europe”?
The “idea of Europe” varies depending on what country or cultural group you ask. Each different group has different ideas and opinions that depends on different criteria. As mentioned above, Europe is defined politically, culturally, and geographically so one’s view on the idea of Europe depends on how they define Europe and their part, or lack thereof, in the European Union.
Italy was one of the founding members of the European Union and is a part of cultural Europe since it is a Catholic country and takes part in the Christian identity that Europe possesses. In the post-World War II and fascist period, Italy has taken part in democracy and pro-European unity ideals. Italy has always been seen as one of the less economically stable countries in the European Union so being in the European Union has benefited them in multiple ways, including economically. By having strong countries and the Euro backing Italy it strengthens the country itself and reinforces the unity within the European Union. Recently, going along with many other European countries, Italy has become more conservative and has a rising populist party, the Five Star Movement. Italy’s idea of Europe is changing with its evolving political landscape. Italy’s election earlier in 2018 demonstrated how citizens view of their role in Europe and the European Union is changing due to the immigration crisis. Italy’s far-right nationalist party, the League, is anti-immigration and does not want to uphold their end of the European Union’s plans to take in more migrants. Italy’s geographical location put them in a predicament during the immigration crisis and going forward does not want to bear most of the burden. The leader of this far-right nationalist party wants to “change Europe” which shows how much Italy has changed since it was a part of the European Coal and Steel Community and was pro-European Unity. Tensions are rising between the European Union and Italy which demonstrates how the idea of Europe is changing for Italy. Italy has become closer to the Prime Minister of Hungary, Viktor Orbán, which shows how Italy is becoming more aligned with state sovereignty ideas rather than the ideas that make up the European Union and the prospect of a unified European continent.
Italy is at a crossroads where it can choose to stick with the democratic ideals it has valued for decades or it can go along with the rising nationalist and populist movement sweeping Europe, and the world, right now.

Works Cited

Glencross, Andrew. The Politics of European Integration. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell, 2014.

“‘We Want to Change Things from Within.’ Italy’s Matteo Salvini on His Goal to Reshape Europe.” Time. Accessed September 14, 2018. http://time.com/5394207/matteo-salvini-time-interview-transcript-full/.

“Tensions Rise between Italy and the EU.” The Economist, August 30, 2018. https://www.economist.com/europe/2018/08/30/tensions-rise-between-italy-and-the-eu.

What Defines Europe?

I’ve long understood the boundaries and definitions of Europe according to its traditional geographic location as the lands west of the Straits of Bosphorus, Ural, and Caucus Mountains.  But given the history of the land and the constant comings and going of peoples not only native to Europe but to Asia and Africa, it is perhaps necessary to reevaluate the definition of Europe.  In years past, scholars used to define Europe by its religious history as the bedrock of Christian control.  However, that definition is difficult to support given the waining support for christian institutions across the continent and the legacy of Islam in Iberia, Central, and Eastern Europe.  I believe that the best argument to provide a definition of Europe is to describe it as the lands and peoples who throughout all of history have striven to maintain and build off of the Greco-Roman societies of the ancient world.      

The ancient Greek city states and later Roman Republic & Empire exported their culture, religion, and ideas across the whole of the Mediterranean world, rooting their values deep into conquered societies.  But following the collapse of the Western Empire in 476 AD and the waining power of the Eastern Empire in the middle east and north Africa, some societies were transformed by new powers while others kept the legacy of Rome alive.  For example, Charlemagne’s new Frankish Empire sought to be the successor state in the west and roll back the tide of the dark ages, providing a brief renaissance before his death.  Meanwhile, the Byzantine Empire exported greco-roman culture to slavic nomads and the nordic/slavic city states that would become Russia.  Conversely the Mongol, Turkic, and Arab conquests eroded and replaced Roman legacy for their distinctly different culture and societal makeup.  In some places like Iberia and Russia these changes were temporary, while northern Africa and the middle east became the bedrock of the new cultures. 

All European nations since have sought to incorporate some of this greco-roman legacy into their civilization.  Be they Germanic, Slavic, Romance, Greek, Celtic etc., these peoples share in a common historical legacy that spans nearly two thousand years.  Understandably there could be some concern with this definition as it can be argued that other countries might model their societies off of the greco-roman legacy.  However, I don’t see this to be truly the case, given how Asian & African countries have their distinctly different heritage and former colonies in the Americas and Australia share a hybrid heritage from Europe, Africa, and the Natives.  Having this connection across geography and ethnic culture is what truly defines these lands as European while separating them from their neighbors in Asia and Africa.

2)

For my case study I will be looking into how Austria is handling the migration crisis and how it’s altered the political discourse surrounding European integration.  This calls into question just who gets to be European and whether or not anyone can shed their previous identity to adopt a new one.  Despite being the largest refugee crisis since the second world war, many European countries have been hesitant to let in and settle these people precisely because they question their ability to become European.

The essential argument here revolves around the Clash of Civilizations theory in international politics.  Proponents of this theory believe that the distinct cultural differences between civilizations, in this case European and Islamic, prevents peaceful coexistence between those people in the same space.  Though it doesn’t necessarily say that the civilizations can’t interact with one another, it heavily discourages the intermixing and liberal ideas of diversity.  Of course the obvious danger of this theory is that it only emboldens racist and ultra-nationalist voices who still strive for ethno-national purity.       

In Austria, where as much as 82% of the population are ethnically germanic/austrian, only 7% of the population is muslim.  During the first year of the migration crisis, the Austrian government would permit 90,000 asylum applicants, before lowering the number to 37,500 for each of the next four years.  Increasingly the Austrian government would enact harsher restrictions against migrants and refugees including the construction of a border fence along its Slovenian border, issuing a daily migrant cap, denying food and water for denied refugee applicants, and most recently the seizure of mobile phones from migrants.  All of these actions are meant to restrict and limit the amount of non-Austrians from entering and settling into the country.  

Broadly speaking, the rhetoric and actions taken across the region seem to alienate those refugees who are specifically muslim.  These far right politicians are so convinced that muslim refugees will be unable to assimilate and become proper Europeans that they are trying to utilize every legal measure available to inhibit the ability for these refugees to settle in Austria.  Should other European neighbors prove that integration between the two societies can be successful and peaceful, then one can only hope that the Austrian government would roll back some of these damaging policies and embrace greater humanitarian values.                    

What is “Europe?”

The question, “What is Europe,” can have many answers depending on what lens you view it through. For some, Europe is defined strictly by its geographical boundaries, the Caucasus and Ural Mountains separating it from Asia in the East, and stretching over to Ireland in the West. There has always been debate, however, about where to draw the boundary line. Should Georgia, Cyprus, Turkey, or Russian be included in the standard definition of Europe? Currently, European states are interchangeable with EU members. Overall uncertainty about what Europe encompasses leads to even greater uncertainty about who can join the EU. According to the EU, Cyprus, Turkey, Russia, and Georgia are not European states but 28 other countries are. The Council of Europe, however, extends membership to Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey, putting overall membership at 47 countries. The EU and Council of Europe are not selecting their membership based on purely geographical reasons. The EU, for example, accepts membership based on a series of factors, some of which include upholding four fundamental freedoms.

Related definitions about what Europe is, stem from the post-World War II period. Following the conclusion of the war, there was a strong call for European unity and the notion of “never again,” spread rapidly (Glencross, 23.) Many states which were involved in the war looked for an institutional outlet to solidify their newfound unity. Post-World War II definitions of Europe included those European states dedicated to the expansion of democracy and human rights throughout the continent. This notion of pursuing a European identity and furthering the European cause of democracy lasts to this day, and is upheld with institutions like the EU. Switzerland, Norway, and (soon to be) the United Kingdom, are all non-EU members, but all those states uphold values congruent with the rest of the EU member states and are dedicated to similar ideals, showing maybe there is another definition of Europe that is missing.

The Idea of Europe

Ireland has always been thought of as a traditional European state and is typically included in most standard definitions of Europe. Geographically, Ireland is located in continental Europe, separated from the mainland by the Celtic Sea and the English Channel. Not being directly connected to the rest of Europe could be the reason behind Ireland not exhibiting expected behavior for many other European countries. Ireland and the United Kingdom joined the EU during the 1972 enlargement, to reap the economic and political benefits.

Initially, Ireland was dedicated to retaining its sovereignty. Ireland is one of six members of the EU who is not a part of the Schengen Agreement. The Schengen Agreement was established to abolish border controls and allow for increased coordination with asylum and visa procedures. While initially done outside the bounds of EEC framework, this agreement has now become a part of supranational EU policy making. Ironically, the EU has founding values of allowing the free flowing of goods, people, services, and capital over borders. Ireland agreed to support those values, but would not sign an agreement allowing for ease of people into the county. Ireland remaining an opt-out to this agreement shows its dedication to remain its own country. Moreover, Ireland rejected the Lisbon Treaty and the slogan “Don’t be bullied,” was common among Irish voters (Glencross, 277.) In the end, Ireland ratified the treaty but the resistance voters initially demonstrated showed their unwillingness to be pushed around or agree to a treaty simply because everyone else did.

However, when it became necessary for the survival of their country, Ireland relied on its fellow EU members to rescue them from insolvency during the 2008 financial crisis. The Eurozone stepped in and rescued Ireland from full sovereign default, and Ireland’s history of being a European state allowed for them to saved. Despite holding membership in the EU and other international organizations, Ireland is committed to being an independent state. Ireland’s lack of participation in agreements such as the Schengen Agreement prove that there is more to being considered a European state than geography or shared agreements.

Work Cited:

Glencross, Andrew. The Politics of European Integration: Political Union or a House Divided? Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell, 2014.

What is Europe?

Definitions of Europe tend to fall into two broad categories: Those presenting an immutable, historically rooted or geographic definition – and those positing a mostly ideological or programmatic construct.

The first of these sets of definitions focus heavily on history – often distant history, including epochal battles like Lepanto, Tours and the defense of Budapest (Betz and Meret 2009, 1). These visions also rely heavily on a Huntingtonian civilizational clash thesis, presenting Christian Europe in conflict with a series of (usually Islamic) enemies. This vision is frequently paired with a mainstream geographic interpretation that sees the boundaries of Europe as the Ural and Caucasus mountains (Glencross 15), the Mediterranean and the coastlines of north and western Europe. This interpretation has appeared in official EU documents and reflects a common sense geographic vision that is linked to history – the countries within these borders simply had more historical contact with each other than with external countries.

The second set of definitions describe Europe as a political project, often embodied by the European Union and a concomitant embrace of liberal democratic values. From this view, countries in the former Eastern Bloc “became” part of Europe when they embraced a particular set of ideals (perhaps best operationalized as the EU’s formal criteria for joining) and countries like Turkey and Morocco can “Europeanize” with time. While this vision may pay lip service to geographic boundaries it stresses that countries on or beyond the European periphery can join a values-based vision of “Europe.”

Neither of these definitions, each of which distinct political factions have periodically embraced, is entirely viable by itself. It is self-evident that Europe is not purely ideological and has some geographic definition – no serious observer suggests Japan or the United States is a part of Europe. Equally, Europe’s borders are not necessarily fixed by a particular set of geographical boundaries.

More controversial is Europe’s relationship with its own history. The Huntingtonian vision – often invoked with notions of blood and soil – is far from the only mechanism by which history continues to shape Europe. Europe’s history, for the most part confined within the its putative geographic borders, is defined by a struggle to remain “free from the menace of absolute rule” (Glencross 2014 – 15). Much of this, to be sure, occurred within the borders of the EU’s 28 current members or in the Council of Europe’s vaguer definition (Glencross 2014, 17) – but the nations of the former Ottoman Empire and North Africa also played a role in such struggles. This series of military and ideological confrontations, from the Reformation to the Thirty Years’ War to the World Wars, shaped the essential compromises that make today’s world possible.

A comprehensive definition of Europe must combine aspects of both ideology, history and geography: Europe is defined as a set of countries embracing external toleration and internal pluralism in response to centuries of geographically specific religious and national conflict – it is impossible for countries to fully embody the first set of criteria without having lived through the second.

What is Europe to Hungary?

The question of a definition of Europe is particularly integral to the future of Hungary – a country that could find itself on either side of putative ideological definitions of Europe. Viktor Orban’s publicly declared project to re-imagine Hungary as an “illiberal democracy” (Buzogány 2017) clashes with the liberal democratic vision of the institutions of the European Union. Instead, Orban endlessly invokes a immutable, historically rooted vision of a Christian Europe locked in a civilizational struggle with Islam.

The first iteration of this question is institutional as Orban argues, both through public speeches and government actions, with the institutions and structures of the European Union. The recent initiation of Article 7 proceedings, designed to strip countries of certain EU voting rights, against Hungary has elucidated the stakes of this confrontation. The institutions and leadership of the EU have sought to impose their definition of Europe onto Hungary. However, that does not mean Hungary is alone in its definitional challenge.

Orban’s vision of Europe is clearly not without allies. So-called “Eurosceptic” parties are often precisely skeptical of the liberalizing impulses of the EU’s ideological project – preferring more parochial national and communal visions, and also resisting the oversight of supranational regulators and anti-corruption watchdogs . More subtly, social conservative factions of the European People’s Party (of which Orban remains a member in good, if tenuous standing), like the Bavarian CSU shared aspects of Orbans historically and religiously mediated definition of Europe. Recent denunciations by EPP leader Manfred Webber mark an exception to general EPP support of Orban’s vision which was heralded by mainstream EU leaders as providing a respectable and democratic face to right wing populism (Kelleman 2015). In Poland the Law and Justice government has mirrored aspects of Orban’s attack on democratic structures and publicly supported Orban.

To Hungary, Europe is a negotiation between civilizational roots and contemporary ideology. Orban’s government seeks to emphasize the former to compensate for its abandonment of the latter as it embraces an increasingly authoritarian agenda. Orban’s personal corruption and increasingly neo-feudal economic approach also clash with EU attempts at oversight.  But there is nothing permanent about this alignment. Both Hungary as a country and Orban himself were once symbols of a rising, liberal democratic Eastern Europe. Hungary as a country is a part of Europe by any reasonable geographic or historical vision. Orban’s Hungary may not be.

Bibliography

1. Betz, H. G., & Meret, S. (2009). Revisiting Lepanto: the political mobilization against Islam in contemporary Western Europe. Patterns of prejudice, 43(3-4), 313-334.
2. Glencross, Andrew. Politics of European Integration: Political Union or a House Divided?. John Wiley & Sons, 2014.
3. Rupnik, J. (2012). How things went wrong. Journal of Democracy, 23(3), 132-137.
4. Buzogány, A. (2017). Illiberal democracy in Hungary: authoritarian diffusion or domestic causation?. Democratization, 24(7), 1307-1325.
5. Kelemen, R. D. (2015, June 18). EPP ♥ Orbán. Retrieved from https://www.politico.eu/article/epp-defends-hungary-orban-against-criticism/

What is Europe?

According to Merriam-Webster dictionary, Europe is, “A person born, raised or living in Europe; while also being a native or resident in the continent of Europe. Europe is a continent based in the Northern + Eastern Hemisphere and has a census of 741.4 million people. When you look at Europe through a geographical lenses, it is commonly referred to as the western part of the Eurasian landmass. The continent starts in the Atlantic and ends as the Urals amd Caucasus mountains, which is deemed problematic because of the issues that will arise from Russia and Turkey.

A major group in Europe, the EU, is an organization which prides itself as a political and economic union comprised of 28 countries, with the goal of being more competitive in the global market place. When it comes to joining the EU, two problems arise. The first problem stems from the uncertainty over Europe`s boundaries, which because of the boundary issue, makes it unclear which countries have the right to become apart of the European Union (Glencross 2014,14). For example, Turkey and Russia are two countries that have territory in both Europe and Asia, but are not apart of the EU. The ability to identify a geographical boundary between Europe and Asia is problematic and due to the inability to define this, the expansion of the EU is unlikely. The second problem is through the accession process, which states, any European state which respects TEU 6(10): “ the principles of liberty, democracy, respect for HR and fundamental freedoms, and the rule of law” (Fabian PowerPoint, 2018). Though many countries may believe they check all the boxes, it has been seen that countries have been rejected from joining the EU because of either their political regime, economy, posing a threat and geographical limitations.

Case Study Relate to Europe?

When looking into the roles countries play within the EU, one can see how beneficial the joining of this institution was for Lithuania. By Lithuania joining the EU, they were able to emerge as a country that could enhance their economic status, join the new single market place and enhance their business opportunities by having the resources of the EU. During the Eurozone crisis, which was a time when several European countries were hit with high structural deficits, which led to expensive bailouts and a slowing of the economy. During this time, Lithuania was one of these countries that was hit with this deficit, and in turn, adopted the euro in effort to actively participate within the EU and help rebuild their economy. (Vitkus 2016, 1.)

Though joining the EU has benefitted Lithuania greatly, the integration came at a steep cost. One example would be the Ignalina nuclear power plant, a plant that was the biggest Chernobyl-type atomic power plant in Europe. One of the conditions of joining the EU is adhering to the European Commission, a committee that deemed the safety level of the plant would not attain to their standards (Vitkus 2016, 2). Though the safety issue was a major concern, a real concern for Lithuania was that the plant was a major source of cheap electric power, which adherently produced 80% of electric power nationwide. Though Lithuania took a significant hit by closing this plant down, the realization of the benefit the EU brings to their society compared to the keeping of the plant and leaving the EU was outweighed with what the EU brings to the table.

Before Lithuania was integrated in the European Union, Lithuania was struggling with notion of being a post-communist, poor and poorly run governed state. Lithuania used the integration to elevate themselves as a country that could prosper under a political system that their elites deemed fit. These political elites see the strengthening of the EU has a national interest because, “Lithuanians believe that the very existence of the EU completely changed the geopolitical environment and made it friendlier for smaller states” (Vitkus 2016, 3).

Work Cited:

https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/vitkus.pdf

Gediminas Vitkus.2016.” A Case of Confridence in the European Project”.

Andrew Glencross.2015.” THE POLITICS OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION”. WILEY Blackwell.