Literature, Film, and the Cultural Industry in Contemporary Austria

Introduction

Margarete Lamb-Faffelberger and Franz-Peter Griesmaier

Modern Austria habitually presents itself as the “cultural nation” or Kulturnation. This image was created to support Austria’s national and cultural identity formation during its restauration years in the 1950s. Austria’s political and cultural elite proclaimed the Second Republic as a modern continuation of the Habsburg-Austria. The rallying call was to build a bridge to the past: “We only need to continue where the illusions of a mad man interrupted our dreams. In fact, we do not need to look forward but back,” declared Alexander Lernet-Holenia.1

Thus, Austria strongly promoted a cultural conservatism in which its ancient history and cultural treasures could create a deep sentiment of continued greatness and superiority. It is therefore not surprising that the rebuilding and reopening of the Vienna State Opera and the Burgtheater, which had held a central place in Austria’s public and political consciousness for the past three centuries, once again played an important role for the cultural and national identity of the Second Republic.

Today, Austria’s rich culture of the performing arts enjoys a distinguished international reputation. The famous Salzburg Festival as well as the operetta festivals in Mörbisch and Bregenz draw large audiences. In addition, the Kulturnation Austria eagerly engages in “exports” of its cultural products that most nearly represent the desired image, e.g., the New Year’s Concert televised annually, or the Vienna Boys Choir who perform on all major stages around the world. Despite the domination of traditional classical art performances and presentations, Vienna’s annual Festival Weeks, the Viennale Film Festival, the Ars Electronica (the world’s largest multi-media and computer art festival held annually in Linz), and the avant-garde festival steirischer herbst also attract numerous national and international artists and interested crowds. Cultural tourism is flourishing, and the wealth and top quality of Austria’s cultural presentations bring much desired revenues to this small country of merely eight million people. Therefore, the promotion of culture in Austria is both of national and of economic importance.

In fact, issues concerning Austria’s cultural politics often take center stage in the media and public discourse. In particular, the manifold changes that took place in the culture industry of the Western world during the 1980s and 90s (i.e., the use of new technologies for rapid information dissemination, and issues of globalization, such as the internationalization of companies and the re-distribution of monies) made it necessary to take a hard look at current cultural politics in Austria. The art community as well as the public at large was invited to send in their suggestions and ideas for a major reform via internet. When the White Book on the Reform of Austrian Cultural Policy was published in the summer of 1999, the place value of culture for Austria was stated as follows: “Our cultural heritage and our contemporary culture and art constitute major factors for both, our own definition of cultural nation as well as the foreign perception of Austria.” 2 The debate about the amount of subsidies for the arts in general and how the money should be distributed is central to the mission of Austria’s cultural politics. Austria’s state support for the arts is among the highest in Europe. For instance, 70% of the art budget is used to fund the performing arts, and 80% of these funds are channeled to the state theaters [Bundestheater]. 3 Thus, the amount with which the many independent artists, theater groups, and the 3,000 authors and playwrights registered in Austria are funded is unproportionally small. Plus, Austria’s publishing houses are suffering greatly from insufficient assets; Austria’s reader market is too meager for most publishers to succeed.

In September 1999, the issues of promotion and funding and matters concerning Austria’s culture industry lay at the center of the Conference on Modern Austrian Literature and Culture, subtitled “Literature, Film, and the Culture Industry in Post-War Austria” that was held at Lafayette College. The present volume is a collection of thirteen articles that were presented at the conference (with the exception of two contributions, namely Jürgen Koppensteiner’s interview of the publisher Maximilian Droschl and Walter Grond’s polemic text). Two articles take up cultural policy matters, the others discuss and analyze literary texts, theater, films and film adaptations and deal in differing manner with issues concerning today’s cultural industry in Austria. The essays make no claim to providing comprehensive or exhaustive coverage of the topics at hand. What they can and, I hope, do in fact accomplish is to offer insights into questions of presentation and representation, into issues of market forces and the subject-matter of reception in Austria between the 1950s and the late 1990s.

Herbert Hofreither’s article provides the reader with an in-depth look at current Austria’s cultural policies and offers numerous facts and figures of the government’s financial commitment to the arts in general, and particularly to literature and film. Alfred Pfabigan, on the other hand, brings into questions Austria’s high subsidies that favor certain art productions and creativities, especially those of Austria’s so-called Staatskünstler. He engages in the debate on the controversial state funding for a “culture for all” that was predominantly advocated by the Social Democrats as supposed to an art and culture industry that perhaps, may have self-supporting potential. Subsequently, Pfabigan recommends an alliance between the creative intelligence, the state, and private funding.

For this volume, Jürgen Koppensteiner submitted his interview with Maximilian Droschl whose publishing house has been in existence in Graz for over twenty years. Despite the fact that the general public is often indifferent and sometimes even hostile to contemporary literature, Droschl continues to successfully produce books without catering to the mass market or to a broad readership.

Walter Grond’s polemic essay raises questions with regard to the abuse of power when he asks: “…have the Rightful Right ones, who enjoy pointing at the Wrongful Wrong ones, ever questioned themselves, “What is Haider within me? How do I manage to declare myself a Rightful Wrong one without becoming like Haider, the Wrongful Right one?” Instead of assigning blame exclusively to the political right, he considers the left equally guilty for causing negative currents within the contemporary Austrian cultural community. Grond alludes to the fact that many of the publicly funded artists turn into cultural administrators, rubbing shoulders with those in power whom they allegedly criticize. To a certain degree this of course is to be expected in a society in which cultural funding is almost exclusively a function of the state.

During a panel discussion between Herbert Hofreither, Walter Grond and Alfred Pfabigan it became clear that in the absence of a strong cultural market the state should subsidize cultural activities. Although the question does arise with regard to the justification of using taxes to fund activities in which the population shows almost no interest. Namely, a mere 8% of Austrians are interested in the arts despite the fact that governmental subsidies for art and literature are among the highest per capita in the EU – as Hofreither points out in his article. This is especially surprising in light of the official doctrine of Kulturnation of which many Austrians seem to be quite proud. Most perceive their country as a nation of high culture, indeed as one of the most important and oldest cultural centers of the world. Surprisingly, the notion that Austria’s cultural significance of particular importance is not shared by everyone. The results of an EU-wide poll on the prominence of European culture capitals rendered among others Paris and London, but did not include Vienna.

There is an obvious discrepancy in the perception of Austria as a Kulturnation which is promoted within its borders and to the rest of the world and the realities that need to be faced. It certainly reflects an ambiguous attitude towards Austria and its self-image of cultural domination. The cultural critic Karl-Markus Gauß wrote the following commentary regarding Austria’s ambivalent image:

For the longest time Austria was either praised or cursed. Yet what really matters is that it should be discovered. He, who wants to reach Austria, must first get through the magic forest of idyllic impressions and cross the seven mountains of historic amnesia. Behind them lies a country that those who idealize Austria might not like; and those who detest Austria might say it does not exist. What the one would like is what the others despise. However, they are both gnawing on the same bone, the one full of enjoyment, the others full of disgust – it just depends.” 4

Gauß’s criticism is directed against Austria’s continual presentation of idyllic Heimat-attitudes with deceptive notions of greatness and superiority. For the past fifty years, Modern Austria has been striving to overcome the stigma of being a physically small and politically unimportant country by claiming centrality, or being the “heart of Europe,” first the bridge between East and West during the Cold War, and now the gate to the East. Furthermore, by claiming to be the inheritor of European civilization, as well as the keeper of a simpler and thus, uncorrupted rural life, it created the notion of Heimat-Austria which is nothing more than a fetish.5

Nevertheless, during the restauration years of the Second Republic Austrians enjoyed the enticing Heimat-films with Toni Seiler and Luis Trenker, and indulged in the romantically sweet Sissi-trilogy. Mary Wauchope’s essay deals specifically with the Sissi-phenomenon, as it first appeared in the 1950s and then again on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of Sissi’s death in 1998. Wauchope argues that the success of the film-series in their original release is due to the fact that the audience could identify with the lead character who is part of the romanticized Habsburg-era while at the same time embodies the new democratic ideals of the Second Republic. Wauchope points out that the Sissi-mania of the late 1990s was fueled by comparisons between Sissi and England’s Princess Diana, who both were “loved by the people” and suffered a tragic death. Austria’s tourism industry aggressively marketed these comparisons in an attempt to, once again, promote Austria as a nation with a rich cultural history comparable to those of other leading nations, such as England. And many Austrians eagerly embraced this deceptive image with renewed cultural pride.

The export of stereotypical Austria-images is also the subject of Ioan Lazarescu’s article in the present volume. He analyzes in the context of didactic films for the German-language student in foreign countries and questions whether the continued emphasis of cultural stereotypes, such as Austria’s music traditions of Mozart and Strauss, the theater, baroque architecture, Jugendstil, and Vienna’s fin-de-siècle do justice to contemporary Austria and its cultural wealth.

Robert Acker’s contribution to the present volume is an interesting discussion of the film adaptation of Josef Haslinger’s novel Opera Ball and its very favorable reception. Book and film tell the story of a horrific massacre during the festive ball, held annually in Vienna’s revered State Opera House. While the novel finds reasons for the massacre in deep-rooted social problems and anti-democratic forces within contemporary Austria, the film issues an indictment of clearly identified individuals and thereby, perhaps unintendedly, releases Austria’s society from any responsibility. The film, much more so than the novel, can be consumed for its entertainment value and offers through the clear identification of “evil individuals” an excuse to dismiss the notion that “evil forces” might somewhere lie hidden within Austrian society.

Indeed, the issue of “evil forces” and wrong-doing during the Austro-fascist years in the 1930s and the Nazi rule was not a topic of public interest until 1986 when, due to the controversy surrounding the presidential candidate Kurt Waldheim, Austria was forced to reexamine its involvement in Nazism. Until then, any discussion about coming to terms with the responsibilities of Austrians in World War II and their involvement in the Holocaust had been excluded from public discourse. The Second Republic’s focus on culture as a vehicle for identity formation had engendered a deceptive spirit of reconciliation and good will. The desire to compromise and reconcile ensured stability, and prosperity. Unperturbed politics guaranteed domestic tranquility. The status of neutrality provided a strong sense of national security. And of course, Austria’s rich history and cultural treasures created a deep sentiment of continued national and cultural prominence. Austria’s Vergangenheitsbewältigung was not considered a national issue pertinent enough to construct a sound national and cultural identity.

However, not everyone was unconcerned with or oblivious to the collective amnesia displayed by the vast majority of Austrians. Many intellectuals, writers and artists urged their fellow citizens to reflect on their behavior during the Nazi years, and warned against the obnoxious Über-Ich—the superior ‘I’ or ‘We’—invoked by the notion of Austria’s cultural glory. For instance, Fritz Hochwälder’s highly successful play The Raspberry Picker (1964) questions the extent to which the former advocates of National Socialism have come to grips with overcoming their Nazi past in order to contribute to the formation of a new society along democratic lines. Edward R. McDonald’s essay in the present volume offers an analysis of the plays and concludes that the tragicomic elements succeed in making the audience aware of how aging proponents of Nazism have miserably failed to assimilate into Austria’s postwar democracy. McDonald also points out that Hochwälder was painfully aware of the fact that Austria’s postwar silence paved the way to fully embrace the notion of victim. Half-truths could easily be embellished and passed off as full-truths, as the recent political rise of Jörg Haider, former leader of Austria’s far-right Freedom Party and current governor of Carinthia, demonstrates.

Contemporary writers and artists are deeply concerned about the presence of fascist undercurrents in Austrian society. In this regard, the recent revival of Karl Schönherr’s plays by the contemporary author Felix Mitterer is most remarkable. Mitterer not only staged Schönherr-dramas but also re-wrote The Cart People [Karrnerleut, 1902] dealing with current social concerns. The modern play is called The Cart People ’83 and was presented together with Schönherr’s original drama at the Volkstheater in Munich in 1983. Pamela S. Saur offers an interesting perspective on the playwright Karl Schönherr (1867-1943) and the reception history of his plays in the present volume. Saur argues that “the effects of non-literary ‘market forces’ such as Imperial and Third Reich authorities, changing attitudes toward issues in his plays, the stigma of Nazi association, and both negative and positive effects of his Tyrolean regionalism” need to be considered when evaluating the case ‘Karl Schönherr’ and analyzing his literature.

Until the late 1980s, Austria nurtured a romantic attitude toward its past glory and embraced a cultural conservatism that hindered many Austrians from developing an open mind and an interest for cultural criticism, artistic experimentation and innovation. To this day, most state funding is channeled toward Austria’s established theaters and artists rather than given in support of experimental and avant-garde writers and filmmakers. In addition to insufficient financial assistance, these artists frequently endure ridicule and hostilities from Austria’s conservative media, politicians, and the ignorant public. They are often misunderstood and rarely recognized for their cultural contributions.

The actionist Hermann Nitsch and the writer Elfriede Jelinek are two artists represented in the present volume who all to often had to bear the harshest treatment from the media, politicians, and the general public over the past decades. Despite the fact that today, Nitsch and Jelinek enjoy international recognition, Austrians by and large still reject the artists and their work. In his contribution to the present volume, Bernhard Doppler provides a series of reflections on Nitsch’s Orgy-Mystery Play that was performed at his castle in Prinzendorf in 1998. Of special interest for our discussion of the workings of Austria’s cultural industry are the staged demonstrations by protestors who flocked to the small town, and which curiously contrast the relative acceptance of Nitsch’s activities by the local population. Perhaps the prospects of good wine sales do outweigh any scruples against purported profanity and alleged atrocities? After all, cattle are being slaughtered everyday.

Elfriede Jelinek exposes voyeurism as a possible source for the estrangement of the self in her novel The Piano Player. These attitudes have become quite evident in the widespread appeal of today’s Reality-TV shows. Carlotta von Maltzan’s interpretation shows that the protagonist, Erika exists in a society in which the intrusive gaze onto others has become the dominant form of interaction. Thus, Erika lost – what philosophers call – the first-person perspective. In fact, no genuine first-person can remain. In the same manner, Maltzan interprets Jelinek’s insistence in the fact that during interviews the audience never learns more about the author herself. Rather the public meets the staged self actualized by the expectations of the interviewer.

Contemporary Austrian experimental poetry – rarely the subject of media and culture industry attention – is the subject of Franz-Peter Griesmaier’s contribution to the present volume. Christine Huber’s and Hans-Jörg Zauner’s poetic texts follow the Austrian tradition of language skepticism and experimentation which can be traced to Hugo von Hofmannsthal’s Letter of Lord Chandos, to Ludwig von Wittgenstein, the Dadaists, and to the poetics of the Wiener Gruppe. Griesmaier’s philosophical discussion of Huber’s and Zauner’s artistic intent illustrates that their work constitutes the gathering of “poetic” data to ground new theories about the relationship between mind, language, and world.

In today’s world of mass culture and consumerism however, the people’s contact with art and culture is all too often reduced to a frivolous leisure activity. The corrupting forces inherent in today’s culture industry are directed towards the production of easily consumable goods by titillating novelty and innovation. Therefore, Gerlinde Sanford considers Alois Brandstetter’s highly critical relationship to the culture industry, often a central topic in his novels, in her contribution. Brandstetter strongly rejects the continual pressures to modernize and to create something seemingly faster, bigger and better. And he urges his readers to counteract the potential loss of individual integrity by reflecting critically on the disturbing values of mass consumerism that are promoted by today’s culture industry.

Contemporary Austrian writers and filmmakers have made significant contributions to the public discourse on cultural amnesia and historical revisionism for the past thirty years. Time and time again, they engage in the process of consciousness-raising by challenging with varying intensity and on differing aesthetic platforms Austria’s misguided self-promotion as Kulturnation par excellence.

Lafayette College

and University of Wisconsin

NOTES

1. Alexander Lernet Holenia quoted in Wendelin Schmidt-Dengler, “Vorwort” Literatur über Literatur. Eine österreichische Anthologie . Petra Neubaur und Sigurd Paul Scheichl, Eds. (Graz: Droschl) 11.

2. See Bundeskanzleramt, Ed. White Book on the Reform of Austrian Cultural Policy [Weißbuch zur Reform der Kulturpolitik] (Wien: Internet, 1999).

3. Ulf Birbaumer, “Kultur für alle – vor allem für das Ausland. Der ‘Paradigmenwechsel’ in der Kulturpolitik” Autorensolidarität . Erwin Kisser, Gerhard Ruiss, Johannes Vyoral, Eds. (Wien: IG Autoren Verlag, 1989) 89.

4. Karl-Markus Gauß, Ins unentdeckte Österreich. Nachrufe und Attacken (Wien: Paul Zsolnay Verlag, 1998) 52-53.

5. Margarete Lamb-Faffelberger, “Beyong The Sound of Music. The Quest For Cultural Identity in Modern Austria” Acta Germanica : forthcoming publication.

Peter Lang Publishing, Germany

1999 Austrian Conference Page